martin hoffman empathy theory examples
No one has the time or energy, and trying to spread our empathy that thinly would be an invitation to emotional burnout and compassion fatigue (p. 591). Well, yesbut thanks mainly to the primacy of empathy; otherwise, why should perspective-taking serve prosocial rather than egoistic [e.g., manipulative] ends? (Hoffman, 2000, p. 131). Of course, this practical point and Haidts in-group emphasis should not be stretched to excuse doing nothing to help alleviate distant suffering. After all. Both studies also found that maternal nurturance related positively to parental induction, parental disappointment, and child empathyvariables that in turn correlate with prosocial behavior (cf. Moral principles and other cognitive regulators of empathy level, along with low impulsivity, permit effective and sustained prosocial behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2006). The airplane pilot in charge of landing his aircraft in bad weather at a busy airport must not allow feelings to perturb attention to the details on which his decisions depend. From this reflection emerged a sense of self-disappointment (I, too, was disappointed in myself). Empathy may not form sympathy, however, if the observer attributes responsibility to the victim for his or her plight. Once these modes emerged in phylogeny, they could be applied outside the rearing context and play a role in the wider fabric of social relationships (de Waal, 2012, p. 89)especially as the bodily affective mechanisms coalesce or compound with the advanced cognitive modes. Only the most advanced forms of knowing what others know may be limited to our species. 78 sixth and seventh graders (138-172 months in age), their mothers, and teachers completed multiple measures of Hoffman's constructs. An unexpected finding in the Krevans and Gibbs (1996) study pointed to the importance of a construct not currently included in Hoffmans theory: parental expression of disappointed expectations. Beyond-the-situation veridical empathic distress can be distinguished as a sixth stage, as empathy for an entire groups life condition emerges: It seems likely that with further cognitive development, especially the ability to form social concepts and classify people into groups, children will eventually be able to comprehend the plight not only of an individual but also of an entire group or class of people such as those who are economically impoverished, politically oppressed, social outcasts, victims of wars, or mentally retarded. Batson (2011) argued that valuing the others welfare is a more fundamental source of empathic concern, partly because perspective-taking spontaneously flows from other-valuing (p. 228). 3132). De Waal (1996) suggested that social perspective-taking and other cognitive processes permit humans to direct more appropriately and effectively (fine-tune) the empathic and helping tendencies shared with other cooperative animals: The cognitive dimension [has] to do with the precise channeling of [empathy]. Hoffman's model explains how empathy begins and how it develops in children. Too much power assertion or love withdrawal directs childrens attention to the consequences of their action for themselves. In terms of classical conditioning, basic empathy is an acquired or learned response to a stimulus that is temporally associated with ones previous affect (distress, joy, etc.). Experiments suggest that many of the components of cognitive empathy are in place. Vaish & Warneken, 2012). Although Kohlbergs theory may underplay egoistic motives and empathy, then, it does remind us of the role and potential power of cognitive primacy, especially the moral motivation engendered by coordinations of social perspectives and violations of justice. Effective inductions are not only developmentally appropriate but also reflect an optimal level of parental power or influence. Recall Haidts (Chapter 2) broad neo-nativist claim: namely, that moral psychology should focus on how diverse cultures refine the human infants biologically prepared affective intuitions (cf. Especially in ambiguous circumstances, observers may be motivated to make precisely that causal appraisal to reduce empathic over-arousal (discussed later). Fourteen-month-olds, for example, are willing and able to help instrumentally. Their prosocial behavior orients to the here-and-now; that is, it occurs almost exclusively in situations in which helping consisted in handing over an out-of-reach object and not in more complex situations involving less salient goals and complex forms of intervention (Vaish & Warneken, 2012, p. 138; cf. Elsewhere (see Chapter 3 notes) we describe an intrinsic motivation to explore (effectance motive). Yet de Waal (2009) suspected that the self-comforting and simple emotional contagion of this first step cant be the whole story (p. 95). in particular situations is consistent with the greater sensitivity in our cognitive and perceptual systems to small changes [often signaling present, visible, and immediate danger] in our environment. Although adaptive at critical moments, this sensitivity comes at the expense of making us less able to detect and respond to large changes. Empathic distress for a vividly presented victim can generalize, as when a well-publicized, highly salient victim of a widespread disaster or severely crippling illness (say, a poster child for muscular dystrophy) elicits empathic distress and help that extends to the entire group of victims. He also notes that because of empathy, humans have the tendency to side with the victim, an idea that he emphasizes plays an important role in law. These processes include cognitive strategies, beliefs, and perceptions, especially: (a) temporary defensive strategies such as selective attention (if you dont want to be aroused by an image, dont look at it; de Waal, 2009, p. 80), thinking or looking at something distracting, self-soothing, or looking ahead to a planned interlude (e.g., the rest and relaxation breaks of emergency care workers; cf. One is not fully human until one acknowledges and affirms the humanity of othersincluding ones enemies. Since Hoffmans (2000) work, others have noted as well the multifaceted or complex nature of the full-fledged empathic predisposition. Feeling may refer to a joy or a sorrow (Light & Zahn-Waxler, 2012; Dunfield, Kuhmeier, OConnell, & Kelley, 2011), but the emphasis in Hoffmans theory (and the field generally) has been on empathic distress. Slovic (2007) suggested that a single individual, unlike a group, is viewed as a psychologically coherent unit. Nonetheless, newborns relative non-reaction to their own cry suggests at least a primitive physiological awareness of the self as separate from others (Light & Zahn-Waxler, 2012, p. 111); i.e., some selfother distinction already functioning right from birth (Decety & Jackson, 2004, p. 78), perhaps indicating an implicit sense of self as an agentive entity in the environment. Such a sense of self would not necessarily imply, however, any self-consciousness or self-awareness (Decety & Svetlova, 2012, p. 8; see below). This question will be explored in the next two chapters. Use a textbook if you have one, it may help. ease others discomfort Which of the following best describes egocentric empathy? Martin Hoffman's theory of moral psychology and development is primarily focused on empathy and empathic distress, but also includes classic conditioning, cognitive reasoning, and principles of caring and justice. Hoffmans affective-primacy theory of empathy-based moral development and prosocial behavior (as well as the inhibition of aggression) starts with biologically based predispositions. As he or she becomes less egocentric or more aware of the others psychological experience as distinct from that of the self, the young child begins to experience socially accurate or veridical empathy. (p. 239). 4849). In Hoffmans theory, maternal warmth is a background or contextual variable (Hoffman, 1970, p. 303) or an example of parenting style (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Again link it back to the case studies. This theory is based on the idea that understanding an object is the key to true appreciation of it, as . Consider a situation in which a child in the first place caused anothers distress: Child A says it is his turn and grabs a toy from child B, who grabs it back. (p. 19; quoted by Hoffman, 2000, p. 123). Hoffman discusses empathy's role in five moral situations. Hoffman argued that parents judicious use of power can promote moral socialization. In fact, females are often found to be more advanced than males in moral judgment during early adolescence (e.g., Garmon, Basinger, Gregg, & Gibbs, 1996; Gibbs et al., 2007; Silberman & Snarey, 1993). We now review the basic and mature modes, followed by the developmental stages of empathic distress (see Table 5.1). three- and four-year-olds are quite good at telling what happens in general in a familiar event such as having lunch at the preschool or going to the beach, the zoo, or McDonalds. The common features of conflict (outer, inner) and influence (compliance, self-regulation) in the discipline encounter form the basis of Hoffmans (1983) argument for the importance of discipline practices to the outcome of moral socialization. Two contemporaneous10Close studies that have examined this claim both found results consistent with it. In phylogeny, the concurrent emergence of advanced helping behavior (e.g., consolation) with self-recognition is consistently evident in apes but not Old World monkeys, suggesting that these advances may be functionally linked, co-emerging relatively late in phylogenetic history (de Waal, 2009, 2012). These modes are classifiable as basic (involuntary mechanisms of mimicry, conditioning, direct association) or mature (mediated association, perspective-taking). exposure control, Gleichgerrcht & Decety, 2012); (b) a self-efficacy belief (Bandura, 1977) that one has the requisite skills and other competencies to substantially alleviate the victims suffering; (c) moral or helping professional identity; and (d) the activation of moral principles. Martin L. Hoffman aims to determine the extent of which empathy affects the creation, and execution of law through the writing "Empathy, Justice, and the Law." . The formation of this empathy-based sentiment (we will use empathy loosely to mean sympathy) requires a certain causal appraisal; namely, that the distressing circumstances were beyond the sufferers control (perhaps a natural disaster, unavoidable accident or illness, or the death of a loved one). It accounts for moral motivation in terms of a decentration process that generates prescriptions of equality and reciprocity, or justice. ; Singer, 1981). This leads to more extensive processing of information and clearer impressions about individuals (p. 89). What might effective moral education consist of, and how might we use reason to achieve moral insight? Within empathic bias, Hoffman distinguishes between familiarity-similarity and here-and-now. A prototype of the familiarity bias is the preference that can develop for a stimulus to which one is repeatedly exposed (e.g., Zajonc, 1968). As the infant grows into childhood and adolescence, then, the empathic predisposition becomes less superficial and increasingly multi-modal. After all, they point out, we already enter this world equipped to experience a rudimentary sense of ourselves in relation to others (Light & Zahn-Waxler, 2012, p. 122). Hoffman argues (and we would agree) that there are basically two families of moral principle: caring and justice. As we will see, it is depth of feeling in morality that is highlighted in Hoffmans theory. Nonetheless, their help may still be more appropriate to relieving their own discomfort (e.g., bringing a distressed peer to ones own mother even though the friends mother is present, or offering ones own rather than the peers favorite toys)suggesting a somewhat egocentric projection of ones own onto others inner states and needs. As in Kohlbergs and Piagets theories, stages for Hoffman may identify developing competences or potentials more than actual performance. Although biology imparts to empathy its earliest modes of affective arousal, more advanced modesespecially as they coalesce with cognitive developmental milestones to form stages or levelssubsequently enrich the empathic predisposition. Accordingly, Hoffman suggested that disappointment items be assimilated either to induction or love withdrawal, depending on how the parent usually responds in similar situations (p. 155).
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