neuroscience perspective strengths and weaknesses
These studies provide behavioral information about how experience-expectant processes can be manipulated to occur earlier than expected in a normal developmental trajectory. Researchers believe that with MPI, resolutions can be boosted to the theoretical equivalent of a 30 T MRI scanner.59. Dev. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233, Brito, N. H., and Noble, K. (2014). Trends Cogn. Trends Cogn. This is a fundamental problem in the field and will only improve with better study designs that include larger sample sizes.40. I discuss two fundamental problems that limit the evidentiary utility of neuroscience-based claims: the problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual inference. In addition, there is the problem of time: because people do not walk around wearing scanners, neuroimaging evidence presents information regarding brain structure or function after the fact. All of this should help contribute with the identification and the better comprehension of the mechanisms of mediation of early adversity on brain development. Psychosom. Neuroscience has been criticized by some philosophers because the methods and inferences are suspicious of not being logic neither scientific, when relating the brain to the mind, therefore this discipline would not be scientific, at least in the way it has been applied. Many legal decisions depend on accurate assessment of mental states and mental capacities (such as capacity for rationality or control over one's behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can shed light on these matters. Unlike behaviors, certain kinds of neuroimaging, such as structural MRIs, are not possible to fake, aside from deceptions like switching the films, and can thus allay malingering concerns. In the basic sciences, optogenetics,53 a technology invented by psychiatrist Karl Deisseroth in 2005,54 continues to reap rich rewards. doi: 10.1037/a0024657, Crone, E. A., and Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2011). 10, 647658. This means the explanations can be scientifically tested, replicated, and peer-reviewed. Cognitive perspective Theorist Ulric Neisser Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Main Idea The cognitive perspective is based on the assumption that the brain is the most essential factor in how an individual behaves or thinks. 13, 6573. weaknesses attention emotion learning / memory motivation perception too oriented towards micro-level considerations can lack specificity: nature vs nurture refers to practically every aspect/variable affecting human responses. there is an almost literally infinite number of possible interactions between these variables Neuroscience as a field is hindered by underpowered study designs that involve sample sizes that are too small. Strengths and Weaknesses of Humanistic Theory. 6, 817. We are well-suited to analyze behaviors, having evolved both neural hardware (expanded areas of the brain that support theory of mind)44 and software (folk psychology)45 to ascribe intentions to the behaviors of others as a matter of survival.46 However, the same areas of brain that allow mentalization also enable deception47 because we can best deceive when we know how other minds work; behaviors can be faked, so malingering is a perennial concern. Educational Researcher, November 1989, 18 . Critical period regulation. More recently, these types of molecular genetic approaches are being increasingly used to examine the association between dopaminergic polymorphisms and educational achievement (e.g., Beaver et al., 2012). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Although many conceptual and methodological issues should be explored, initial epigenetic findings support the notion that epigenetic changes underlie, at least partially, the long-term impact of early experiences, and that epigenetic alterations are potentially reversible or modifiable through pharmacological or behavioral intervention (Hensch, 2004). First, we propose to increase the focus on the study of variables, factors and mechanisms that mediate the effects of poverty on different cognitive and emotional processes to complement the analysis of impacts. The aim of this assignment is to understand Psychological Perspectives and analyse what each perspective's strengths and weaknesses are. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behavior and cognition. Although disk degeneration by itself is only poorly predictive of back pain,50 I think most would agree that the combination of the radiographic finding with the history makes the case much stronger. Front. A strength of the biological approach is that it provides clear predictions, for example, about the effects of neurotransmitters or the behaviors of people who are genetically related. Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. For the testing specialist, the challenge is to ascertain the predictive value of a given brain defect on a proposed functional impairment. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., and van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2011). When behavioral evidence conflicts with neuroimaging findings, in general the high percentage move will be to side with the behavioral, because neuroscience is so poor at predicting individual outcomes of brain defects. It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well, and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear enough. Poverty and Brain Development during Childhood: An Approach from Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience. Environmental acoustic enrichment promotes recovery from developmentally degraded auditory cortical processing. 15:843. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1849, Zhu, X., Wang, F., Hu, H., Sun, X., Kilgard, M. P., Merzenich, M. M., et al. Sci. The authors want to thank CONICET, CEMIC, FONCYT, and Fundacin Conectar for their support, their colleagues at the Unidad de Neurobiologa Aplicada, and Jennifer Simonds and Lesa Ellis for proofreading the manuscript and making suggestions that contributed to its enrichment. Based on its location and size, it is plausible that Mr. Weinstein's cyst contributed to behavioral impairments and thus potentially is relevant to finders of fact, but because of biovariability, the neuroimages alone cannot establish whether he was impaired, nor can it establish, if impaired, to what extent the brain defect was a contributing cause. We will also finally get a good sense of the range of what brains in the general population look like and how they change over time. Transformation of cortical and hippocampal neural circuit by environmental enrichment. Moreover, the consideration of sensitive periods for many processes susceptible to different socioeconomic conditions and timing of intervention requires a revision of the agendas in other disciplines addressing childhood poverty (e.g., many disciplines currently contend that the impacts of economic and social deprivation are permanent and irreversible) (DAngiulli et al., 2012). Dev. Search. However, the most pernicious error here, one that is not easy to spot, is the claim that because the amygdala is the fear center, activity there indicates that the defendant was experiencing high levels of fear. Specifically, exposure of different species to enriched conditions, in comparison with either standard or deprived environments, has been associated with several structural changes in neurons and synapses, glial components, brain vasculature, brain cortex weight and thickness, rate of hippocampal cell neurogenesis, availability and metabolism of both neurotrophi factors and neurotransmitters in different brain areas, and neurotrophic and neurotransmitter gene expression (Hirase and Shinohara, 2014). (2014). In this sense, to generate changes in neurocognitive development, interventions have been introduced recently in the study of attention disorders, dyslexia, dyscalculia, executive functions, and arithmetic performance in samples of children from different SES backgrounds. Each technique has its strengths and weaknesses, and knowing them allows researchers to decide what each offers for . Annu. Thus, integration of the different forms of plasticity should be the focus for neuroscience research in the field of poverty and brain development aimed at establishing windows for intervention opportunities. For example, people who go to funerals wear black, but it would be an error of logic to assume that all people who wear black go to funerals. In terms of impacts, mediating mechanisms, hypotheses and the interpretation of data obtained by applying molecular, behavioral, and neuroimaging techniques seems to focus mainly on the comparison of performance and degree of activation rather than the identification of mediating mechanisms (Hackman and Farah, 2009; Lipina and Colombo, 2009; Hackman et al., 2010; Raizada and Kishiyama, 2010; Lipina and Posner, 2012). The much that is known about human ways of thinking and behaviors can be attributed to psychological theories. Many different techniques are classified as psychophysiological. For such a purpose, it is necessary to encourage the design of interventions and the measurement of outcomes driven by theoretical models to include the consideration of underlying mechanisms at different levels of analysis. Beyond arachnoid cysts, the inability to make individual predictions is a general problem for any claim that a localized brain defect is responsible for a functional impairment in an individual or that an impairment is caused by a particular brain defect. As others have opined,43 it may be helpful as one component of an analysis that integrates psychological and behavioral perspectives. This also implies: (a) the support of methodological innovations in the analysis of neural connectivity for studies that compare different intervention contexts (e.g., home, school, community), its mediators, and the potential requirements for the intervention designs (e.g, Jolles and Crone, 2012; Lipina and Posner, 2012); and (b) the generation of alternative methodologies aimed at overcoming limits in sample size, timing of longitudinal designs, and levels of analysis (Gianaros and Hackman, 2013). 16, 708712. Nutrition and the developing brain: nutrient priorities and measurement. (2012). Natl. Front. In a practical context, the BrainMind Audit Profile (that contains 9 metrics) provides information on the strengths and weaknesses of an individual's brain-and-mind functioning, and by doing . Take for example, a neuroscience expert's claim, relying on quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) data, that an individual's amygdala is abnormal and overactive. To this respect, some of the main contributions include the diversity of molecular mechanisms in different brain areas, epigenetic interactions, the role of structural consolidation, inhibitory and excitatory balance, functional competition between inputs, regulation by experience and age, influence of motivation and cognitive control, and potential for reactivation of organizational processes in adulthood (Hensch, 2004; Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009; Bavelier et al., 2010). Further, even if abnormality could be established, the field currently lacks (with rare exceptions9) adequate studies that correlate qEEG signals with legally relevant functional impairments. Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fascination with understanding how a physical organ, weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. For instance, Essex et al. It is likely that environmental stimulation does influence learning. Development as a dynamic system. 16, 665675. Front. This is a well-known problem in the neurolaw literature: the group-to-individual (G2i) inference problem.28 Studies that identify associations of brain defects with impairments typically do so by comparing a group of subjects with a localized defect to a group of subjects without the defect (healthy controls). Thus, incorporating findings that show the time-sensitivity of plasticity into research designs could contribute to revise this way of thinking about human brain development in adverse contexts. Individual and combined effects on childrens development. Most modern scanners have three Tesla (T) magnets that can resolve brain tissue down to 1 mm (a 1-mm3 block of brain contains approximately 20,000 neurons),57 but the most powerful MRI machine under construction will surpass them all at 11.75 T, which is expected to be able to resolve brain tissue down to 0.1 mm.58 Furthermore, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) promises to increase significantly the resolution of functional MRI by injecting magnetic nanoparticles that act as contrast agents. Subsequent PET scans established glucose hypometabolism in the area of the cyst, as well as surrounding areas.25. His lawyer suggested that the prosecutor would never have agreed to a plea if the judge had excluded the PET evidence (Ref. The essential neuro claim made by his team was that Mr. Weinstein's arachnoid cyst impaired his rationality. Sci. In addition, most of the evidence is limited to cross-sectional or short-term longitudinal designs, which present difficulty for understanding changes in the study of brain development in adverse contexts. The cognitive approach has a key advantage of practical and useful applications, but a key disadvantage of not being able to observe the supposed causes of behaviour. U S A 102, 1493114936. Neuroimage 49, 11441150. On the other hand, what should we do if the neuroevidence conflicts with behavioral evidence? Sci. Psychoanalysis refers to both a theory and a type of therapy based on the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. These limitations are consequences of the group-to-individual inference problem in neuroscience. Overall the strengths and the weakness of the research methods adopted by cognitive neuroscientists discussed in my essay (TMS, CAT, PET and FMRI) had a variety of strengths and weaknesses. Psychol. The human element is embedded in the law with words like appreciation, sufficiency, and reasonableness, all of which require human interpretation. Behaviourism: "Behaviourism (also called behavioural psychology) refers to a psychological approach which emphasises scientific and objective methods of investigation" (Simple Psychology, 2016). Ct. 1992), Medical-legal inferences from functional neuroimaging evidence, Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. What are the links between maternal social status, hippocampal function and HPA axis function in children? Before addressing the reverse-inference error here, it is worth quickly mentioning other problems with this reasoning. 6:277. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00277, Hackman, D. A., and Farah, M. J. Not only do researchers fail to detect real effects, but of more concern, they may also falsely determine null effects to be real. Over time, the unifying theory that has emerged is that the amygdala is a salience detector, activating to alert the person to a large variety of stimuli (see Figure 1 in Ref. 6:254. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00254, Ellis, B. J., and Boyce, W. T. (2011). Dev. Certain patterns have emerged: speculations clothed as facts, errors of logical reasoning, and hasty conclusions unsupported by evidence and unrestrained by caution. In addition, recent cumulative evidence suggests that differential susceptibility to the rearing environment may depend on variations in dopamine-related genes. The study of how adverse environmental conditions (e.g., socioeconomic status (SES) or poverty) influence brain organization and reorganization during development includes different approaches. 1, 101109. Because the brain is such a dynamic organ, one cannot reliably reconstruct from a neuroscan the brain's function at the time of the index event. Lipina, S. J., and Posner, M. I. At present, the same underlying questions still apply to the analysis of how different rearing environments (i.e., complex vs. standard) modulate brain structure and function at its many different levels (i.e., molecular, genetic, cellular, network, individual, and social-behavior levels, Hirase and Shinohara, 2014). (2010). Neuroscience perspective is the study of the body's functional psychological processes, based on the activities of the neural and structural changes or alterations in the brain. 117, 134174. Hum. 8:276. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00276, Bryck, R. L., and Fisher, P. A. Trust your gut is a piece of advice often thrown . doi: 10.1037/a0026313, Blair, C., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., Kivlighan, K. T., Fortunato, C. K., Granger, D. A., et al. Early parental care is important for hippocampal maturation: evidence from brain morphology in humans. Weaknesses of the Biological Perspective The weakness of this approach is that it often fails to account for other influences on behavior. 1. qEEG signals have not yet been adequately characterized in the general population, and definitions are needed to distinguish what is a normal or abnormal signal in the first place. Sci. Studying the nervous system advances understanding of our basic biology and body function. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00156-6, Zhou, X., and Merzenich, M. M. (2012). The aim of this effort is to identify target areas of study that could potentially help build a basic and applied research agenda for the coming years. doi: 10.1002/dev.20058, Miller, G. E., and Chen, E. (2013). The developing brain: from theory to neuroimaging and back. Nat. Perspect. For a hypothetical example, a group of 10 patients with strokes in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is compared with 10 healthy subjects on a test of impulse control and are found to differ on this measure. (2014). This analysis is time-consuming and requires methodological innovations for the exploration of molecular pathways, systems and behavioral events, and phenomena simultaneously, and throughout the different stages of development (e.g., Rao et al., 2010). (2013). Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood. Rev. doi: 10.1111/desc.12081, Neville, H. J., Stevens, C., Pakulak, E., Bell, T. A., Fanning, J., Klein, S., et al. doi: 10.1002/dev.20057, Jolles, D. D., and Crone, E. A. 72, 450461. Dev. The consensus view of modern neuroscience is that the brain accomplishes its tasks by dynamically recruiting networks of interconnected brain modules that combine to process and compute the required solution, a model called distributed processing.19 This model is analogous to the design of computer circuit boards, which contain interconnected specialized chips that combine dynamically in different configurations, depending on the task at hand. The nervous system not only works to produce thoughts, emotions, and behavior, but also controls important body functions, like breathing. Neurosci. The problem of overlapping curves is the reason so few neuroimaging-based tests are used in psychiatric diagnosis. Neurotoxicants, micronutrients and social environments. Neuroscience and Psychology offer a powerful insight as to what is happening in our brains and those of others. It is certainly true that many studies have identified the amygdalae (there are two of them, one on each side of the brain) as critical processing centers for the experience of fear. Understanding Conciousness: Not definitive proof claustrum is seat of conciousness. In closing, I emphasize that although neuroscience can inform, it will never be able to answer ultimate legal questions of culpability and desert. Careful review of Mr. Weinstein's thoughts and behaviors before and during the homicide by the prosecution's expert did not seem to support the presence of rational or volitional impairment suggested by his frontal lobe cyst. Not only do researchers fail to detect real effects, but of more concern, they may also falsely determine null effects to be real. Beyond the amygdala, functional imaging studies have demonstrated that generally, brain areas are activated across a very large set of conditions.17 Phrenology, a pseudoscience invented and developed by its founder Joseph Gall in the 18th century, is rightly ridiculed today because of its simplistic one-to-one model that mapped mental functions (secretiveness, mirthfulness) to single points on the brain. They found that maternal stress in infancy predicted higher methylation levels in both girls and boys, but paternal stressors in preschool predicted differences in methylation at adolescence specifically in girls. , and all other conditions.1 Genentech is proud to partake in this groundbreaking collaboration with the University of Washington, Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), PicnicHealth and Cleveland Clinic, and insights from these partnerships will be further discussed as part of Genentech's presence at the 75th American Academy of Neurology (AAN) Annual Meeting being held April . Psychol. Front. After all, it is generally accepted, based on a vast amount of clinical evidence and basic research, that the frontal lobes play an important role in cognitive control and decision-making,20 and that individuals with defects in frontal lobe areas such as orbitofrontal cortex, the area of frontal cortex adjacent to the orbits, exhibit impaired impulse control and impaired decision-making, among other findings.21, However, let us consider a famous example from the neurolaw literature: the case of Herbert Weinstein.22 This case is considered a landmark criminal proceeding in neurolaw, as it is the first known attempt in New York to use neuroimaging to argue for insanity.23 Mr. Weinstein, an advertising executive in his mid-60s with no prior psychiatric or criminal history at the time of the incident, was accused of, and later confessed to, killing his wife by throwing her out the window of their 12th-story apartment after a heated argument.24 A structural MRI was obtained after the act, which revealed a large, left-side arachnoid cyst. The case of Phineas Gage has been of huge interest in the field of psychology and is a largely speculated phenomena. Neuroscience must also embark on large normative studies to understand the prevalence rates of brain defects and functional impairments in the general population. us. A Frye26-type prehearing was held in which the judge ruled the scans admissible. doi: 10.1038/nrn2639, Michel, G. F., and Tayler, A. N. (2005). Differential susceptibility to the environment: toward an understanding of sensitivity to developmental experiences and context. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(02)38074-9, Neville, H., Stevens, C., Pakulak, E., and Bell, T. A. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-1006.2005.00024.x, Johnson, M. H. (2005). Sensitivity and specificity can be estimated with small studies, but ascertaining predictive values requires knowledge of prevalence rates of the defect and impairment in the relevant population.41 For the nonspecialist, the basic concept to grasp is that without large surveys of brain structure and function in the general population, we cannot know how many people are walking around with brain imaging anomalies but are functioning normally, because such individuals rarely come to the attention of research studies. Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: from molecular to behavioral interventions. We truly live in the golden age of neuroscience. 67, 87100. (2012). Sensitive periods in functional brain development: problems and prospects. Dev. Neurosci. 48, 932938. Perhaps this is inevitable, considering the vast complexity of our brains in comparison to the miniscule amount that we know. Environmental enrichment and the brain. Neuroscience as a field is hindered by underpowered study designs that involve sample sizes that are too small. There is also the question of ecological validity: is measuring the brain activity of an individual who is instructed to do nothing for two minutes in a laboratory setting relevant to brain activity during the alleged offense? Because the amygdala activates to threatening images, sexual images, donuts, and chrome rhinoceri, knowledge of amygdala activity alone does not necessarily mean the person was experiencing fear. Hearing ability depends on different degrees of environmental noise exposure (Zhou and Merzenich, 2012), and acoustic enrichment of the environment may promote recovery of auditory cortical processing (Zhu et al., 2014). Strengths and weakness of neuroscientific investigations of childhood poverty: Future directions Authors: Sebastin Javier Lipina Centro de Educacion Medica e Investigaciones Clinicas "Norberto. Natl. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4812-10.2010, Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P., DeLisi, M., and Vaughn, M. G. (2012). The cognitive approach is highly influential in all areas of psychology (e.g., biological, social, neuroscience, developmental, etc.). Neuroscience 280, 282298. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003, Hackman, D. A., Farah, M. J., and Meany, M. J. Epigenetic vestiges of early developmental adversity: childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence. Neuroscience; See All. Considering the opportunities and setbacks mentioned in the previous two sections, we propose a set of main points that require reconsideration and optimized approaches. Some of the main questions currently included in the neuroscientific study of poverty focus on a number of topics already addressed by the fields of developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and health sciences, especially those regarding the effects and mechanisms of mediation at the behavioral level of analysis ( Bradley and Corwyn, 2002; 16, 697707. Gage suffered a severe brain injury from an iron rod penetrating his skull, of which he miraculously survived. 15) determined to be important to his needs.16. It is also worth keeping in mind that neuroplasticity can compensate up to a certain point for brain loss, especially if the loss is slow, as in aging32 or a slow-growing tumor.33. Cogn. Thank you for your interest in recommending The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law site. Received: 27 December 2013; Accepted: 19 January 2015; Published online: 11 February 2015. (2010). She provides you with an extensive history of complaints and descriptions of functional limitations. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.003, Rueda, M. R., Checa, P., and Cmbita, L. M. (2012). For example, I have found that neuroimaging findings can be useful in directing relevant follow-up neuropsychological testing and bringing attention to important behavioral details that might otherwise have been missed. Far transfer to language and math of a short software-based gaming intervention. Commentary: neurocognitive consequences of socioeconomic disparities. After the accident, Gage's personality was said to have changed as a result of the damage the frontal lobe of his brain. Natl. Early neuroscientific studies in experimental animals analyzed how exposure to complex, standard or deprived environments can modify the brain. doi: 10.1017/S095457941000060X, Espinet, S. D., Anderson, J. E., and Zelazo, P. D. (2013). Dev. A. For example, Ganzel et al. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2102-13.2013, Smith, L. B., and Thelen, E. (2003). These potentially variable outcomes add another level of complexity to the study of how behavior is modulated by early experiences. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5310-13.2014, Keywords: childhood poverty, social inequality, brain plasticity, interventions, policy making, Citation: Lipina SJ and Segretin MS (2015) Strengths and weakness of neuroscientific investigations of childhood poverty: future directions. (2014). This appears to have been the case in People v. Weinstein.
Atlanta Public Schools Salary,
Hyperglycemia Prefix And Suffix,
Did Shayanna Jenkins Get Any Money,
Articles N